Sandro
Nielsen
Associate Professor, PhD
Centre for Lexicography
E-mail: sn@asb.dk
This is a short, annotated list of selected publications
on lexicography, LSP lexicography, monolingual and bilingual LSP dictionaries
(specialised dictionaries, Fachwörterbücher, dictionnaires spécialisée,
fagordbøger).
Sandro Nielsen: "Contrastive Description of
Dictionaries Covering LSP Communication." In: Fachsprache/International
Journal of LSP 3-4/1990, 129-136.
·
This paper argues that a description of LSP
dictionaries should focus on the number of lemmata (head words) and the number
of fields covered by a dictionary. It establishes a distinction between
maximising and minimising dictionaries, and a distinction between multi-field
and single-field dictionaries, and divide the latter
into general-field and sub-field dictionaries. It is suggested that the best
coverage, or lexicographical treatment, of LSP communication is achieved by a
dictionary containing a large number of words from a limited area of LSP
communication, rather than a dictionary containing a large number of words from
a broad area, or several areas, of LSP communication.
·
International key words: fagordbog; maksimerende
ordbog; minimerende ordbog; delfagsordbog; enkeltfagsordbog; flerfagsordbog;
LSP dictionary; maximising dictionary; minimising dictionary; sub-field
dictionary; single-field dictionary; multi-field dictionary; Fachcwörterbuch;
Teilfachwörterbuch; Einzelfachwörterbuch; Mehrfachwörterbuch; dictionnaire
spécialisée; dictionnaire maximaliste; dictionnaire minimaliste; dictionnaire
du sous-domaine; dictionnaire monodomaine; dictionnaire pluridomaine.
Sandro Nielsen:
"Forholdet mellem alordbøger og enkeltfagsordbøger." In: R. V. Fjeld
(ed.): Nordiske studier i leksikografi.
Rapport fra Konferanse om leksikografi i Norden 28.-31. mai 1991. Oslo:
Nordisk forening for leksikografi, 275-287.
·
This paper argues that a bilingual LSP (specialised)
dictionary should be compiled as an all-inclusive sub-field dictionary. A
dictionary like this will contain encyclopedic and linguistic information
addressed to the lemmata (head words) as well as the equivalents. It is also
suggested that the articles of bilingual LSP dictioanries should contain
examples, collocations, information on synonymy and
antonymy, and illustrations. As all these types of information take up a lot of
space in the two-dimensional space of a printed dictionary, a bilingual LSP
dictionary should be compiled within a narrow subject-field. Such a dictionary will provide the user with
an in-depth treatment of the language used within the selected subject-field.
Examples based on legal dictionaries are given illustrating how encyclopedic
and linguistic information can be incorporated in the dictionary.
·
International key words: fagordbog; alordbog;
enkeltfagsordbog; all-inclusive dictionary; single-field dictionary;
Fachwörterbuch; Allbuch; Einzelfachwörterbuch; dictionnaire spécialisée;
dictionnaire monodomaine.
Sandro Nielsen: The
Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Principles and Practice for Legal Language. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag 1994
(Forum für Fachsprachen-Forschung Band 24).
·
This book is a revised version of a PhD dissertation.
It explains why it is necessary for lexicographers to have a well-defined basis
before they embark on the task of compiling LSP dictionaries, and suggests how
the lexicographers may go about this task. The main focus is on legal
lexicography and bilingual law dictionaries. To compile the optimal bilingual
LSP dictionary, the lexicographic needs of the potential users (target group)
must be ascertained as well as their knowledge concerning LSP fields and language.
Most users need both linguistic and encyclopedic information, and one of the
lexicographer's principal tasks is to organise and present this information in
a way that is well-structured and easy to understand. All this involves the use
of various lexicographic analyses: Dictionary user research dealing with the
factual and linguistic competences of the target group; dictionary typology
based on the number of fields and the degree of coverage; function(s) of
dictionaries; organisation of dictionary chapters (components): preface, user's
guide, field introduction, word list, supplementary texts; selection of lemmata
and equivalents, including collocations and phrases; presentation of lemmata,
in continuous and discontinuous wordlists, and alphabetical and systematic
wordlists; presentation of the information contained in the articles: grammar,
definitions, equivalents, examples, collocations, phrases, synonyms, antonyms,
cross-references. The theoretical and practical lexicographic exercises involved
in this process are discussed and illustrated by examples from a projected
bilingual law dictionary.
·
International key words: juridisk ordbog; forord;
brugervejledning; fagindledning; lemmaliste; makrostruktur, mediostruktur;
mikrostruktur; Benutzungsanleitung; Wörterverzeichnis; dictionnaire juridique
bilingue; preface; guide de l'utilisateur; introduction á la spécialité; liste
de lemmes; macrostructure; microstructure; bilingual law dictionary.
Sandro Nielsen: "Dictionary Components." In:
H. Bergenholtz/S. Tarp (eds.): Manual of
Specialised Lexicography. The preparation of specialised
dictionaries.
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin Publishing 1995, 167-187.
·
This is one of the chapters in the Manual of
Specialised Lexicography, which is one of the results of a research project
called "Translation of LSP Texts" sponsored by the Danish Research
Council for the Humanities 1990-1993. This text introduces, defines, discusses
and explains the function of and relationship between the various components of
a dictionary. The point of departure is the premise that a dictionary is a
complex unit made up of a number of independent components that together
constitute a whole, namely the dictionary. The components that are treated in
this text are: the list of contents; the preface; the metalexicographical
introduction; the user's guide, including list of symbols and abbreviations
used; the encyclopedic section, also referred to as the field introduction; the
dictionary grammar; the word list; the index; the appendix; the informative
label.
·
Further contributions to Manual of Specialised
Lexicography, in Chapter 10 on Dictionary Structures: "Alphabetical
Macrostructures", pp.190-195; "Microstructure", pp. 200-211;
"Frame Structure", pp. 211-214; "Cross-reference Structure",
pp. 215-219; "Access Structure", pp. 219-223. Each of these texts
introduces, defines, discusses and explains the function and relationship
between these lexicographical structures.
·
International
key words: alfabetisk makrostruktur; mikrostruktur; tilgangsstruktur;
henvisningsstruktur; Verteilungsstruktur; Zugriffsstruktur; structure des
renvois; structure d'accès.
Sandro
Nielsen/Rita Sørensen: "Juridiske oversættelsesordbøger [Legal Translation
Dictionaries]." In: LexicoNordica
5-1998, 129-248.
·
This paper argues that traditional bilingual law
dictionaries are insufficient because they merely contain information about
legal terms, and that translation dictionaries within
the field of law need to contain more than terminological information. The
legal translation dictionary proper has to be designed so that it includes both
encyclopedic and linguistic information, especially stylistic information about
the legal usage of the languages treated by the dictionary. The optimum legal
translation dictionary should contain separate chapters (components) that deal
with the different linguistic aspects of legal translation across cultures, and
it is much more than just a book containing a list of legal terms in the source
language and their translation into the target language. Examples are given
involving linguistic structures in Danish, English and Spanish legal usage.
Sandro Nielsen: "Mediostructures in Bilingual LSP
Dictionaries." In: Lexicographica.
International Annual for Lexicography/Revue Internationale de
Lexicographie/Internationales Jahrbuch für Lexikographie 15/1999, 90-113.
·
This paper argues that the lexicographic
mediostructure is a network structure that deals with a set or sets of
relations that exist between different parts of data by way of
cross-referencing, dictionary-internal as well as dictionary, external. The
abstract mediostructure consists of all the possible sets of cross-referential
relations, whether realised by concrete sets or not in the dictionary. The
actual realisation of these referential networks may be function-related and
the primary function of the dictionary may then be given priority. The actual
cross-references at this level are then the concrete sets of relations
depending on the function of the dictionary, the distribution structure and the
search path involved in retrieving the information. The paper introduces a
distinction between use-related and funtion-related corss-references and
focuses on cross-references supporting the comprehension of texts. It is possible
to show hierachical relationships (genus/species relation) between terms as
well as sequential relations by way of cross-references. Examples taken from
bilingual law dictionaries also show that cross-references can facilitate the
use of synopsis articles and the placing of factual information in the field
introduction in stead of in the articles. It is further argued that the
compilers of a dictionary need to take a broad approach to the lexicographic
mediostructure as it is directly linked to several other structures. Finally, the concept of lexicographic
information costs is introduced.
·
International
key words: mediostruktur; fordelingsstruktur; henvisning; renvoi; structure des
renvois; Verweis; Hinweis; Mediostruktur; Verteilungsstruktur; Zugriffsstruktur.
Sandro Nielsen: "Translation Strategies for
Culture-Specific Textual Conventions in Bilingual Dictionaries." In: Lexicographica. International Annual for
Lexicography/Revue Internationale de Lexicographie/Internationales Jahrbuch für
Lexikographie 16/2000, 152-168.
·
This paper argues that in connection with translation,
the principles of lexicographical treatment and presentation of
culture-specific genre conventions are major issues within the field of lexicography.
It is important to the user because the bilingual dictionaries consulted
contain information that can help him to translate not only words and phrases,
but also genre conventions, verbal as well as non-verbal. Culture dictates
convention and a good bilingual translation dictionary would help the user
select the proper target language convention for a particular communicative
situation. It is demonstrated that the translation strategies adopted by the
lexicographers have not been used consistently for the user to make the best
translation possible. The lexicographers have more or less arbitrarily adopted
the source-oriented and the target-oriented translation strategies, which
results in the user mixing-up the strategies in his translations. It is
suggested that lexicographers must be more careful when they present
equivalents and translations addressed to the lemma, collocations and phrases.
A successful translation is one that does not violate both source language and
target language conventions with respect to a particular type of convention;
something which will often be the case if existing bilingual dictionaries are
consulted. Consequently, the lexicographers need to carry out (comparative)
genre analyses and to adopt an appropriate translation strategy in order to
help the user in the best possible way. One solution is to include a chapter
(component) in the dictionary dealing with the translation of conventions
within one or more selected discourse communities. It is then possible to clearly
show how to translate genre conventions according to a source-oriented and a
target-oriented translation strategy in a consistent manner that will not lead
the user astray. The main examples deal with textual conventions in legal
language and bilingual law dictionaries.
Sandro Nielsen: "Textual Condensation in the
Articles of de Gruyter Wörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache." In: H. E.
Wiegand (ed.): Perspektiven der
pädagogischen Lexikographie des Deutschen II. Untersuchungen anhand des de
Gruyter Wörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 2002,
597-608.
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On the basis of the de Gruyter Wörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache, textual condensation in articles are
discussed. The point of departure is that the information in the articles of a
dictionary designed for learners must be presented so that the user can
successfully and easily understand the informational content. The discussion
deals with two core elements of the article: the comment on form and the
comment on semantics. The study shows that the textual condensation carried out
in both the comment on form (grammar codes etc.) and the comment on semantics
is extensive and has resulted in texts that are difficult to decode for the
learner-user without a very substantial knowledge of the information in the
metatexts. Several ways of condensing texts are discussed: shortening (Kürzen),
omitting (Auslassen), substituting (Ersetzen), abbreviating (Abkürzen) and
embedding (Ineinanderschachtelung). The conclusion is that the lexicographers
have generally given priority to textual condensation in stead of helping the
user learn and use the German language. A way of calculating the degree of
condensation and a guiding threshold for the condensation ratio are also
suggested.
·
Die Angaben in einem deutschen Lernerwörterbuch
sollten vor allem so dargeboten werden, dass sie von den ausländischen
Benutzern ohne Probleme verstanden werden können. In dem Beitrag werden
konkrete Angaben in ausgewählten Wörterbucheinträgen in Bezug auf die Textverdichtung
untersucht. Es zeigt sich, dass die Textverdichtung so stark ist, dass die
erfolgreiche Benutzung des Wörterbuches ohne genauen Kenntnisse der
Benutzeranleitungen sehr schwerig ist und die vorgesehene Wörterbuchfunktion
stark beeinträchtigt wird.
·
Le dictionnaire d'apprentissage prévu pour les
étudiant d'allemand language étrangère doit être conçu de manière à permettre
une lecture facile et univoque. Ceci est vrai particulièrement pour ce qui est l'information
semantique et formelle des articles du dictionnaire. La prèsente contribution
analyse ces informations sous forme d'indications de condensation de texte
prélevées de nombre d'articles de dictionaire. Il
s'est avéré que ladite condensation est assez marquée ce qui rend difficile le
décodage pour l'apprentisseur-utilisateur ignorant le contenu totale des
metatextes. Les lexicographes semblent focaliser sur la condensation des textes
et non sur l'assistance de l'utilisateur désirant
apprendre et se servir de la langue allemande.
Sandro Nielsen: Lexicographical
Basis for an Electronic Bilingual Accounting Dictionary: Theoretical
Considerations. Internet
text © 2002. Read
the text.
·
This paper describes some selected aspects of the
pre-conceptual work in connection with an Internet-based Danish-English
dictionary covering the field of accounting. The emphasis is on text-dependent
and text-independent functions related to the intended user group, as this
relationship is crucial in the design and preparation of this type of
dictionary. In contrast to existing dictionaries within this field, this is a
syntagmatic dictionary with many types of information that are designed to help
the user produce and translate texts. The dictionary articles will contain such
types of information as grammatical information, definitions, equivalents,
pronunciation, collocations, phrases, cross-references and Internet links.
·
International keywords: Internet dictionaries;
electronic dictionaries; Danish-English accounting dictionary; accounting
dictionaries; financial reporting; syntagmatic dictionaries; search structure;
LSP dictionaries; specialised dictionaries; Internet-ordbøger; dansk-engelsk
regnskabsordbog; regnskabsordbøger; finansiel rapportering; elektroniske
ordbøger; søgestrukturer; syntagmatisk ordbog; Internetwörterbuch;
electronische Wörterbücher; Fachwörterbücher; syntagmatisches Wörterbuch.
Sandro Nielsen: "Changes in Dictionary Subject
Matter". In: H. E. Wiegand (ed.): Untersuchungen
zur kommerxiellen Lexikographie der deutschen Gegenwartsprache
!. "Duden. Das groβe Wörterbuch der deutschen
Sprache in zehn Bänden". Print- und
CD-ROM-Version.
Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 2003, 109-114.
·
This paper describes the changes in the dictionary
subject matter (Wörtebuchgegenstand) of the three editions of the Duden
dictionary. The linguisitical approach to the dictionary as a concept operates
with a subject matter, but the analysis reveals that it is not optimal to look
at "the subject matter" of a dictionary within the existing
theoretical, linguistically-based framework. Instead a lexicographical approach
is presented in which the dictionary is analysed as an object of investigation,
and a new definition of the concept of dictionary is suggested. A dictionary
has three significant features: The underlying feature is that the dictionary
has been compiled to fulfil one or more functions. Secondly, the dictionary
contains data suporting the function(s); and thirdly, the dictionary contains
lexicographic structures that link and combine the data into the task of
fulfilling its function(s). The important point is that the three features must
be seen together as they interact: the function(s) is (are) a discrete feature;
the data are dependent on the function(s); and the lexicographic structures
depend on the data and the function(s). It is suggested that the idea of a
dictionary subject matter as described in the literature is trivial, and that
the traditional definition of a dictionary is insufficient. The suggested
definition allows the theoretical lexicographer to treat the dictionary as an
object of investigation, analysis and description, and the practical
lexicographer to treat the dictionary as a "workpiece".
Sandro Nielsen: "Towards a General Theory of
Bilingual Legal Lexicography". In: P. Kastberg (ed.): LSP Translation in the New Millennium. A Cross-Baltic
Symposium on Didactics and Research. 8-11 November
2001, University of Tartu, Estonia.
Hermes Skriftsserie 2003,
pp. 165-188.
·
As the need for intercultural communication in the
field of law has increased, the foundation of a general theory of bilingual
legal lexicography must be given priority. This paper introduces, describes and
explains the elements necessary for compiling the optimal bilingual law
dictionary. The theory deals with much more than the traditional question of
equivalence, and shows which considerations are necessary to fully exploit the
potential of printed dictionaries for the benefit of the users. Most users need
linguistic and factual information that must be organised and presented in a
structured way. This includes user research, organisation of dictionary
chapters, and the presentation and structure of the linguistic and factual
information in the articles and elsewhere in the dictionary.
Sandro Nielsen: "Monolingual accounting
dictionaries for EFL text production". In: Ibèrica 12,
2006, pp. 43-64. Read
the text
·
Monolingual accounting dictionaries may be used by
international users for the production of accounting texts in English as a
foreign language. By identifying and analysing the intended users' factual and linguistic
competences, their needs, use-situations and the stages involved in text
production, it is possible to get a sound basis for designing the optimal
English accounting dictionary for EFL text production. The dictionary will have
to give information about UK, US and international accounting terms, their
grammatical properties, relevant collocations, phrases and sentences to meet
user requirements. Data items that deal with these aspects are necessary for
the international users as they produce subject-field specific and
register-specific texts in a foreign language. The relevant data items are
those applicable to the various stages in text production: draft writing,
copyediting, stylistic editing and proofreading.
Sandro Nielsen: "A Functional Approach to User
Guides". In: Dictionaries: Journal
of the Dictionary Society of North America, No. 27, 2006, pp. 1-20.
·
The functional approach forces lexicographers to
reconsider the scope of user guides. User guides have traditionally centred on
the structures of entries – and consequently on the word list – but their scope
should be widened, so as to include all function-related dictionary components,
thereby highlighting the fact that a dictionaries are much more than lists of
words and that they can be used to solve specific function-related problems.
One way in which to write really crafted and valuable user guides is to
accentuate the relevant communication-oriented and/or cognitive functions and
relate the data in the entire dictionary, not merely the entries, to these
functions. Moreover, lexicographers should consider the classes of language
functions involved in writing user guides. In order to guide and instruct the
user in the best way possible, user guides should contain text parts that have
a directive discourse function, as this is a good way in which to tell users
how to benefit the most when consulting dictionaries in a function-specific
context. The functional approach will enable lexicographers to write user
guides that are true to their genuine purpose: explain how to effectively use
the dictionary.
Sandro Nielsen: “The Effect of Lexicographical
Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use”. In: Lexikos 18
(AFRILEX-reeks/series 18: 2008), pp. 170-189.
·
An important aspect for lexicographers to consider is
the ease with which users will be able to acquire information from the data
presented in electronic and printed dictionaries. A distinction is proposed
between two general types of lexicographical information costs: Search-related
information costs are the effort required by the look-up activities users have
to perform when consulting dictionaries to find access to the data they are
searching for. Access routes, article structures, data distribution and
cross-references may influence search-related information costs positively as
well as negatively. Comprehension-related information costs are the effort
connected to users’ ability to understand and interpret the data presented in
dictionaries, i.e. how easy or difficult is it for users to understand the
data? Examples show how textual condensation, dictionary functions and user
situations may affect the level of comprehension-related information costs. The
paper thus shows that it is possible to establish a framework for evaluating
lexicographical information costs for the purpose of dictionary making, use,
analysis and research.
Sandro Nielsen: “Reviewing printed and electronic
dictionaries: A theoretical and practical framework”. In: S. Nielsen/S. Tarp
(Eds.): Lexicography in the 21st
Century. In honour of Henning Bergenholtz. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John
Benjamins Publishing, pp. 23-41.
·
Dictionary reviewing is an integral part of the
lexicography, and this paper discusses generally applicable principles of
dictionary criticism embracing both printed and electronic dictionaries. First
of all, scholarly reviews should be written so as to contain information that
is useful to their intended audiences and the paper proposes a set of
principles that are generally applicable to achieve this goal. Secondly,
reviewers may write useful reviews by treating the dictionary as an object of
analysis and examination instead of an object of description. Thirdly, there
are three approaches to reviewing dictionaries, the lexicographic, factual and
linguistic approaches, and these approaches should be combined with the three
significant features of dictionaries: lexicographic functions, data and
structures. Finally, it is imperative that a dictionary review gives a true and
fair view of the dictionary by focusing on specific requirements to the
informative value of reviews: relevance, materiality, reliability and
neutrality. The use of the proposed framework will strengthen the role of
dictionary reviews in the scholarly discourse community.
·
International keywords: dictionary reviewing;
lexicographic functions; lexicographic data; lexicographic structures;
significant features; useful information
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