Sandro
Nielsen
Associate Professor, PhD
Centre for Lexicography
E-mail: sn@asb.dk
This is a short, annotated list of selected
publications on lexicography, LSP lexicography, monolingual and bilingual LSP
dictionaries (specialised dictionaries, Fachwörterbücher, dictionnaires spécialisée, fagordbøger).
Sandro Nielsen: "Contrastive Description of
Dictionaries Covering LSP Communication." In: Fachsprache/International
Journal of LSP 3-4/1990, 129-136.
·
This paper argues that a description of LSP
dictionaries should focus on the number of lemmata (head words) and the number
of fields covered by a dictionary. It establishes a distinction between maximising and minimising
dictionaries, and a distinction between multi-field and single-field
dictionaries, and divide the latter into general-field
and sub-field dictionaries. It is suggested that the best coverage, or
lexicographical treatment, of LSP communication is achieved by a dictionary
containing a large number of words from a limited area of LSP communication,
rather than a dictionary containing a large number of words from a broad area,
or several areas, of LSP communication.
·
International key words: fagordbog;
maksimerende ordbog; minimerende ordbog; delfagsordbog; enkeltfagsordbog; flerfagsordbog; LSP dictionary; maximising
dictionary; minimising dictionary; sub-field
dictionary; single-field dictionary; multi-field dictionary; Fachcwörterbuch; Teilfachwörterbuch;
Einzelfachwörterbuch; Mehrfachwörterbuch;
dictionnaire spécialisée; dictionnaire maximaliste; dictionnaire minimaliste; dictionnaire du sous-domaine; dictionnaire monodomaine; dictionnaire pluridomaine.
Sandro
Nielsen: "Forholdet mellem alordbøger og
enkeltfagsordbøger." In: R. V. Fjeld (ed.): Nordiske studier i leksikografi. Rapport fra Konferanse
om leksikografi i Norden 28.-31. mai 1991. Oslo:
Nordisk forening for leksikografi, 275-287.
·
This paper argues that a bilingual LSP (specialised) dictionary should be compiled as an
all-inclusive sub-field dictionary. A dictionary like this will contain
encyclopedic and linguistic information addressed to the lemmata (head words)
as well as the equivalents. It is also suggested that the articles of bilingual
LSP dictioanries should contain examples,
collocations, information on synonymy and antonymy,
and illustrations. As all these types of information take up a lot of space in
the two-dimensional space of a printed dictionary, a bilingual LSP dictionary
should be compiled within a narrow subject-field. Such a dictionary will provide the user with
an in-depth treatment of the language used within the selected subject-field.
Examples based on legal dictionaries are given illustrating how encyclopedic
and linguistic information can be incorporated in the dictionary.
·
International key words: fagordbog;
alordbog; enkeltfagsordbog;
all-inclusive dictionary; single-field dictionary; Fachwörterbuch;
Allbuch; Einzelfachwörterbuch;
dictionnaire spécialisée; dictionnaire monodomaine.
Sandro Nielsen: The
Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Principles and Practice for Legal Language. Tübingen: Gunter Narr
Verlag 1994 (Forum für Fachsprachen-Forschung Band 24).
·
This book is a revised version of a PhD dissertation.
It explains why it is necessary for lexicographers to have a well-defined basis
before they embark on the task of compiling LSP dictionaries, and suggests how
the lexicographers may go about this task. The main focus is on legal
lexicography and bilingual law dictionaries. To compile the optimal bilingual
LSP dictionary, the lexicographic needs of the potential users (target group)
must be ascertained as well as their knowledge concerning LSP fields and language.
Most users need both linguistic and encyclopedic information, and one of the
lexicographer's principal tasks is to organise and
present this information in a way that is well-structured and easy to
understand. All this involves the use of various lexicographic analyses:
Dictionary user research dealing with the factual and linguistic competences of
the target group; dictionary typology based on the number of fields and the
degree of coverage; function(s) of dictionaries; organisation
of dictionary chapters (components): preface, user's guide, field introduction,
word list, supplementary texts; selection of lemmata and equivalents, including
collocations and phrases; presentation of lemmata, in continuous and
discontinuous wordlists, and alphabetical and systematic wordlists;
presentation of the information contained in the articles: grammar,
definitions, equivalents, examples, collocations, phrases, synonyms, antonyms,
cross-references. The theoretical and practical lexicographic exercises involved
in this process are discussed and illustrated by examples from a projected
bilingual law dictionary.
·
International key words: juridisk
ordbog; forord; brugervejledning; fagindledning; lemmaliste; makrostruktur, mediostruktur; mikrostruktur; Benutzungsanleitung; Wörterverzeichnis;
dictionnaire juridique bilingue; preface; guide de l'utilisateur;
introduction á la spécialité; liste
de lemmes; macrostructure; microstructure; bilingual
law dictionary.
Sandro Nielsen: "Dictionary Components." In:
H. Bergenholtz/S. Tarp (eds.): Manual of Specialised Lexicography. The preparation
of specialised dictionaries. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin Publishing
1995, 167-187.
·
This is one of the chapters in the Manual of Specialised Lexicography, which is one of the results of a
research project called "Translation of LSP Texts" sponsored by the
Danish Research Council for the Humanities 1990-1993. This text introduces,
defines, discusses and explains the function of and relationship between the
various components of a dictionary. The point of departure is the premise that
a dictionary is a complex unit made up of a number of independent components
that together constitute a whole, namely the dictionary. The components that
are treated in this text are: the list of contents; the preface; the metalexicographical introduction; the user's guide,
including list of symbols and abbreviations used; the encyclopedic section,
also referred to as the field introduction; the dictionary grammar; the word
list; the index; the appendix; the informative label.
·
Further contributions to Manual of Specialised
Lexicography, in Chapter 10 on Dictionary Structures: "Alphabetical
Macrostructures", pp.190-195; "Microstructure", pp. 200-211;
"Frame Structure", pp. 211-214; "Cross-reference Structure",
pp. 215-219; "Access Structure", pp. 219-223. Each of these texts
introduces, defines, discusses and explains the function and relationship
between these lexicographical structures.
·
International
key words: alfabetisk
makrostruktur; mikrostruktur; tilgangsstruktur;
henvisningsstruktur; Verteilungsstruktur; Zugriffsstruktur; structure des renvois; structure d'accès.
Sandro
Nielsen/Rita Sørensen: "Juridiske oversættelsesordbøger [Legal Translation
Dictionaries]." In: LexicoNordica 5-1998, 129-248.
·
This paper argues that traditional bilingual law
dictionaries are insufficient because they merely contain information about
legal terms, and that translation dictionaries within
the field of law need to contain more than terminological information. The
legal translation dictionary proper has to be designed so that it includes both
encyclopedic and linguistic information, especially stylistic information about
the legal usage of the languages treated by the dictionary. The optimum legal
translation dictionary should contain separate chapters (components) that deal
with the different linguistic aspects of legal translation across cultures, and
it is much more than just a book containing a list of legal terms in the source
language and their translation into the target language. Examples are given
involving linguistic structures in Danish, English and Spanish legal usage.
Sandro Nielsen: "Mediostructures
in Bilingual LSP Dictionaries." In: Lexicographica.
International Annual for Lexicography/Revue Internationale
de Lexicographie/Internationales
Jahrbuch für Lexikographie 15/1999, 90-113.
·
This paper argues that the lexicographic mediostructure is a network structure that deals with a set
or sets of relations that exist between different parts of data by way of
cross-referencing, dictionary-internal as well as dictionary, external. The
abstract mediostructure consists of all the possible
sets of cross-referential relations, whether realised
by concrete sets or not in the dictionary. The actual realisation
of these referential networks may be function-related and the primary function
of the dictionary may then be given priority. The actual cross-references at
this level are then the concrete sets of relations depending on the function of
the dictionary, the distribution structure and the search path involved in
retrieving the information. The paper introduces a distinction between
use-related and funtion-related corss-references
and focuses on cross-references supporting the comprehension of texts. It is possible
to show hierachical relationships (genus/species
relation) between terms as well as sequential relations by way of
cross-references. Examples taken from bilingual law dictionaries also show that
cross-references can facilitate the use of synopsis articles and the placing of
factual information in the field introduction in stead
of in the articles. It is further argued that the compilers of a dictionary
need to take a broad approach to the lexicographic mediostructure
as it is directly linked to several other structures. Finally, the concept
of lexicographic information costs
is introduced.
·
International
key words: mediostruktur; fordelingsstruktur; henvisning; renvoi; structure des renvois; Verweis; Hinweis; Mediostruktur; Verteilungsstruktur; Zugriffsstruktur.
Sandro Nielsen: "Translation Strategies for
Culture-Specific Textual Conventions in Bilingual Dictionaries." In: Lexicographica. International Annual for
Lexicography/Revue Internationale de Lexicographie/Internationales Jahrbuch für Lexikographie
16/2000, 152-168.
·
This paper argues that in connection with translation,
the principles of lexicographical treatment and presentation of
culture-specific genre conventions are major issues within the field of
lexicography. It is important to the user because the bilingual dictionaries
consulted contain information that can help him to translate not only words and
phrases, but also genre conventions, verbal as well as non-verbal. Culture
dictates convention and a good bilingual translation dictionary would help the
user select the proper target language convention for a particular
communicative situation. It is demonstrated that the translation strategies
adopted by the lexicographers have not been used consistently for the user to
make the best translation possible. The lexicographers have more or less
arbitrarily adopted the source-oriented and the target-oriented translation
strategies, which results in the user mixing-up the strategies in his
translations. It is suggested that lexicographers must be more careful when
they present equivalents and translations addressed to the lemma, collocations
and phrases. A successful translation is one that does not violate both source
language and target language conventions with respect to a particular type of
convention; something which will often be the case if existing bilingual
dictionaries are consulted. Consequently, the lexicographers need to carry out
(comparative) genre analyses and to adopt an appropriate translation strategy
in order to help the user in the best possible way. One solution is to include
a chapter (component) in the dictionary dealing with the translation of
conventions within one or more selected discourse communities. It is then
possible to clearly show how to translate genre conventions according to a
source-oriented and a target-oriented translation strategy in a consistent
manner that will not lead the user astray. The main examples deal with textual
conventions in legal language and bilingual law dictionaries.
Sandro Nielsen: "Textual Condensation in the
Articles of de Gruyter Wörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache." In: H. E.
Wiegand (ed.): Perspektiven der pädagogischen
Lexikographie des Deutschen
II. Untersuchungen anhand
des de Gruyter Wörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 2002, 597-608.
·
On the basis of the de Gruyter Wörterbuch
Deutsch als Fremdsprache, textual condensation in articles are
discussed. The point of departure is that the information in the articles of a
dictionary designed for learners must be presented so that the user can
successfully and easily understand the informational content. The discussion
deals with two core elements of the article: the comment on form and the
comment on semantics. The study shows that the textual condensation carried out
in both the comment on form (grammar codes etc.) and the comment on semantics
is extensive and has resulted in texts that are difficult to decode for the
learner-user without a very substantial knowledge of the information in the metatexts. Several ways of condensing texts are discussed:
shortening (Kürzen), omitting (Auslassen),
substituting (Ersetzen), abbreviating (Abkürzen) and embedding (Ineinanderschachtelung).
The conclusion is that the lexicographers have generally given priority to textual
condensation in stead of helping the user learn and
use the German language. A way of calculating the degree of condensation and a
guiding threshold for the condensation ratio are also suggested.
·
Die Angaben in einem deutschen Lernerwörterbuch sollten vor allem so dargeboten
werden, dass sie von den ausländischen Benutzern ohne Probleme verstanden werden können. In dem Beitrag werden
konkrete Angaben in ausgewählten Wörterbucheinträgen
in Bezug auf die Textverdichtung
untersucht. Es zeigt sich, dass
die Textverdichtung so stark ist,
dass die erfolgreiche Benutzung des Wörterbuches ohne genauen Kenntnisse
der Benutzeranleitungen sehr
schwerig ist und die vorgesehene Wörterbuchfunktion
stark beeinträchtigt wird.
·
Le dictionnaire d'apprentissage prévu pour les étudiant d'allemand language étrangère doit être conçu de manière
à permettre une lecture
facile et univoque. Ceci est
vrai particulièrement pour ce qui est l'information
semantique et formelle des
articles du dictionnaire. La prèsente
contribution analyse ces informations sous forme d'indications de condensation de texte
prélevées de nombre d'articles de dictionaire. Il s'est avéré
que ladite condensation est assez marquée
ce qui rend difficile le décodage pour l'apprentisseur-utilisateur
ignorant le contenu totale
des metatextes. Les lexicographes
semblent focaliser sur la condensation des textes et non sur l'assistance
de l'utilisateur désirant apprendre et se servir de la
langue allemande.
Sandro Nielsen: Lexicographical
Basis for an Electronic Bilingual Accounting Dictionary: Theoretical
Considerations. Internet
text © 2002. Read the text.
·
This paper describes some selected aspects of the
pre-conceptual work in connection with an Internet-based Danish-English
dictionary covering the field of accounting. The emphasis is on text-dependent
and text-independent functions related to the intended user group, as this
relationship is crucial in the design and preparation of this type of
dictionary. In contrast to existing dictionaries within this field, this is a
syntagmatic dictionary with many types of information that are designed to help
the user produce and translate texts. The dictionary articles will contain such
types of information as grammatical information, definitions, equivalents,
pronunciation, collocations, phrases, cross-references and Internet links.
·
International keywords: Internet dictionaries;
electronic dictionaries; Danish-English accounting dictionary; accounting
dictionaries; financial reporting; syntagmatic dictionaries; search structure;
LSP dictionaries; specialised dictionaries; Internet-ordbøger; dansk-engelsk regnskabsordbog; regnskabsordbøger;
finansiel rapportering; elektroniske ordbøger; søgestrukturer; syntagmatisk ordbog; Internetwörterbuch; electronische Wörterbücher; Fachwörterbücher; syntagmatisches
Wörterbuch.
Sandro Nielsen: "Changes in Dictionary Subject
Matter". In: H. E. Wiegand (ed.): Untersuchungen zur kommerxiellen Lexikographie der deutschen Gegenwartsprache
!. "Duden. Das groβe Wörterbuch der deutschen
Sprache in zehn Bänden". Print- und
CD-ROM-Version.
Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 2003, 109-114.
·
This paper describes the changes in the dictionary
subject matter (Wörtebuchgegenstand) of the three
editions of the Duden dictionary. The linguisitical approach to the dictionary as a concept
operates with a subject matter, but the analysis reveals that it is not optimal
to look at "the subject matter" of a dictionary within the existing
theoretical, linguistically-based framework. Instead a lexicographical approach
is presented in which the dictionary is analysed as
an object of investigation, and a new definition of the concept of dictionary
is suggested. A dictionary has three significant features: The underlying
feature is that the dictionary has been compiled to fulfil
one or more functions. Secondly, the dictionary contains data suporting the function(s); and thirdly, the dictionary
contains lexicographic structures that link and combine the data into the task
of fulfilling its function(s). The important point is that the three features
must be seen together as they interact: the function(s) is (are) a discrete
feature; the data are dependent on the function(s); and the lexicographic structures
depend on the data and the function(s). It is suggested that the idea of a
dictionary subject matter as described in the literature is trivial, and that
the traditional definition of a dictionary is insufficient. The suggested
definition allows the theoretical lexicographer to treat the dictionary as an
object of investigation, analysis and description, and the practical
lexicographer to treat the dictionary as a "workpiece".
Sandro Nielsen: "Towards a General Theory of
Bilingual Legal Lexicography". In: P. Kastberg (ed.): LSP Translation in the New Millennium. A Cross-Baltic
Symposium on Didactics and Research. 8-11 November
2001, University of Tartu, Estonia.
Hermes Skriftsserie 2003, pp. 165-188.
·
As the need for intercultural communication in the
field of law has increased, the foundation of a general theory of bilingual
legal lexicography must be given priority. This paper introduces, describes and
explains the elements necessary for compiling the optimal bilingual law
dictionary. The theory deals with much more than the traditional question of
equivalence, and shows which considerations are necessary to fully exploit the
potential of printed dictionaries for the benefit of the users. Most users need
linguistic and factual information that must be organised
and presented in a structured way. This includes user research, organisation of dictionary chapters, and the presentation
and structure of the linguistic and factual information in the articles and
elsewhere in the dictionary.
Sandro Nielsen: "Monolingual accounting
dictionaries for EFL text production". In: Ibèrica 12, 2006, pp. 43-64. Read the text
·
Monolingual accounting dictionaries may be used by
international users for the production of accounting texts in English as a
foreign language. By identifying and analysing the
intended users' factual and linguistic competences, their needs, use-situations
and the stages involved in text production, it is possible to get a sound basis
for designing the optimal English accounting dictionary for EFL text
production. The dictionary will have to give information about UK, US and
international accounting terms, their grammatical properties, relevant
collocations, phrases and sentences to meet user requirements. Data items that
deal with these aspects are necessary for the international users as they
produce subject-field specific and register-specific texts in a foreign
language. The relevant data items are those applicable to the various stages in
text production: draft writing, copyediting, stylistic editing and
proofreading.
Sandro Nielsen: "A Functional Approach to User
Guides". In: Dictionaries: Journal of
the Dictionary Society of North America, No. 27, 2006, pp. 1-20.
·
The functional approach forces lexicographers to
reconsider the scope of user guides. User guides have traditionally centred on the structures of entries – and consequently on
the word list – but their scope should be widened, so as to include all
function-related dictionary components, thereby highlighting the fact that a
dictionaries are much more than lists of words and that they can be used to
solve specific function-related problems. One way in which to write really
crafted and valuable user guides is to accentuate the relevant
communication-oriented and/or cognitive functions and relate the data in the
entire dictionary, not merely the entries, to these functions. Moreover,
lexicographers should consider the classes of language functions involved in
writing user guides. In order to guide and instruct the user in the best way
possible, user guides should contain text parts that have a directive discourse
function, as this is a good way in which to tell users how to benefit the most
when consulting dictionaries in a function-specific context. The functional
approach will enable lexicographers to write user guides that are true to their
genuine purpose: explain how to effectively use the dictionary.
Sandro Nielsen: “The Effect of Lexicographical
Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use”. In: Lexikos 18
(AFRILEX-reeks/series 18: 2008), pp.
170-189.
·
An important aspect for lexicographers to consider is
the ease with which users will be able to acquire information from the data
presented in electronic and printed dictionaries. A distinction is proposed
between two general types of lexicographical information costs: Search-related
information costs are the effort required by the look-up activities users have
to perform when consulting dictionaries to find access to the data they are
searching for. Access routes, article structures, data distribution and
cross-references may influence search-related information costs positively as
well as negatively. Comprehension-related information costs are the effort
connected to users’ ability to understand and interpret the data presented in
dictionaries, i.e. how easy or difficult is it for users to understand the
data? Examples show how textual condensation, dictionary functions and user
situations may affect the level of comprehension-related information costs. The
paper thus shows that it is possible to establish a framework for evaluating
lexicographical information costs for the purpose of dictionary making, use,
analysis and research.
Sandro Nielsen: “Reviewing printed and electronic
dictionaries: A theoretical and practical framework”. In: S. Nielsen/S. Tarp
(Eds.): Lexicography in the 21st
Century. In honour of Henning Bergenholtz. Amsterdam/Philadelphia:
John Benjamins Publishing 2009, pp. 23-41.
·
Dictionary reviewing is an integral part of the
lexicography, and this paper discusses generally applicable principles of
dictionary criticism embracing both printed and electronic dictionaries. First
of all, scholarly reviews should be written so as to contain information that
is useful to their intended audiences and the paper proposes a set of
principles that are generally applicable to achieve this goal. Secondly,
reviewers may write useful reviews by treating the dictionary as an object of
analysis and examination instead of an object of description. Thirdly, there
are three approaches to reviewing dictionaries, the lexicographic, factual and
linguistic approaches, and these approaches should be combined with the three
significant features of dictionaries: lexicographic functions, data and
structures. Finally, it is imperative that a dictionary review gives a true and
fair view of the dictionary by focusing on specific requirements to the informative
value of reviews: relevance, materiality, reliability and neutrality. The use
of the proposed framework will strengthen the role of dictionary reviews in the
scholarly discourse community.
·
International keywords: dictionary reviewing;
lexicographic functions; lexicographic data; lexicographic structures;
significant features; useful information
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